HOW IMPORTANT ARE MENTAL REPRESENTATIONS IN COGNITIVE THEORIES :: essays research papers

HOW IMPORTANT ARE MENTAL REPRESENTATIONS IN COGNITIVE THEORIES? How the world around us is represented mentally is the corner stone of cognitive architectures. It facilitates understanding of information received and perceived from our environment. The storage and retrieval of knowledge would be impossible without mental representations. Mental representations are the way in which we create ‘copies’ of the real things around us, which we perceive. A description of a representation is a symbol, sign, image or a depiction that takes the place of a real object in the real world. . Representations were broadly categorised into three. The ‘analogue representation’ the ‘propositional representation’ and ‘procedural rules’. Analogue representations are those which have an image-like copy quality to them, whereas the propositional representation are based on language-like constructs. Since the arrival of connectionism another representation has been proposed that of sub-symbolic representation. Here mental representations, according to Eysenk and Keane (2002) are â€Å"distributed† patterns of activation in a connectivist network. Historically, mental representations have been interpreted by analogy with physical representations, i.e. descriptions and classifications devised for physical representations have been applied to mental representations (Paivio, 1986). Physical representations can be picture-like or language-like (see Table). Physical and mental representations physical representations  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  picture-like  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  language-like examples  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  photographs drawings maps diagrams  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  human-language formal systems: maths, symbolic logic computer programs properties  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  analogue iconic continuous  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  non-analogue non-iconic digital/discrete Table: Types of physical representations (after Paivio, 1986) The representations need then to be categorised for storage in long -term memory. These ‘packages’ of knowledge are classed as being either procedural knowledge or declarative knowledge. Procedural knowledge is knowing how to do something or precisely what to do. It is sets of rules or procedures and skills like playing the piano. Declarative knowledge is about facts. Representations allow cognitive models to work as they are the ‘substance’ the models work on. The models for discussion share common features but are equally differentiated from each other at some level. Before looking at each of the theories mental representations it would be helpful to take a snapshot of the model structures and approaches to learning and processing to gain a fuller understanding of their strengths and weaknesses. The models compared here are Schema theory (Rummelhart and Norman 1983) ACT* Anderson) and PDP. Schema theory is said to offers a unified theory of cognition as it umbrellas all areas of cognition. It is interactive and works on stored knowledge or long-term memory. It does not address any wider structural issues. Schema is about how our learning is influenced by our previous knowledge. HOW IMPORTANT ARE MENTAL REPRESENTATIONS IN COGNITIVE THEORIES :: essays research papers HOW IMPORTANT ARE MENTAL REPRESENTATIONS IN COGNITIVE THEORIES? How the world around us is represented mentally is the corner stone of cognitive architectures. It facilitates understanding of information received and perceived from our environment. The storage and retrieval of knowledge would be impossible without mental representations. Mental representations are the way in which we create ‘copies’ of the real things around us, which we perceive. A description of a representation is a symbol, sign, image or a depiction that takes the place of a real object in the real world. . Representations were broadly categorised into three. The ‘analogue representation’ the ‘propositional representation’ and ‘procedural rules’. Analogue representations are those which have an image-like copy quality to them, whereas the propositional representation are based on language-like constructs. Since the arrival of connectionism another representation has been proposed that of sub-symbolic representation. Here mental representations, according to Eysenk and Keane (2002) are â€Å"distributed† patterns of activation in a connectivist network. Historically, mental representations have been interpreted by analogy with physical representations, i.e. descriptions and classifications devised for physical representations have been applied to mental representations (Paivio, 1986). Physical representations can be picture-like or language-like (see Table). Physical and mental representations physical representations  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  picture-like  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  language-like examples  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  photographs drawings maps diagrams  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  human-language formal systems: maths, symbolic logic computer programs properties  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  analogue iconic continuous  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  non-analogue non-iconic digital/discrete Table: Types of physical representations (after Paivio, 1986) The representations need then to be categorised for storage in long -term memory. These ‘packages’ of knowledge are classed as being either procedural knowledge or declarative knowledge. Procedural knowledge is knowing how to do something or precisely what to do. It is sets of rules or procedures and skills like playing the piano. Declarative knowledge is about facts. Representations allow cognitive models to work as they are the ‘substance’ the models work on. The models for discussion share common features but are equally differentiated from each other at some level. Before looking at each of the theories mental representations it would be helpful to take a snapshot of the model structures and approaches to learning and processing to gain a fuller understanding of their strengths and weaknesses. The models compared here are Schema theory (Rummelhart and Norman 1983) ACT* Anderson) and PDP. Schema theory is said to offers a unified theory of cognition as it umbrellas all areas of cognition. It is interactive and works on stored knowledge or long-term memory. It does not address any wider structural issues. Schema is about how our learning is influenced by our previous knowledge.

Police Administration Essay

In the general concern of police administration, strategic program evaluation is indeed important for the effectiveness of their service and function in the society. Through the thorough evaluation and analysis of their administration and programs, the police organization can understand their processes and strategies in which they can notice their challenges, pitfalls, and problems thus ensuring measures to further develop their performance and service. Another is that through evaluation, the police administration can likewise determine their strengths and advantages, which they can incorporate in their organizational development and further performance plan. Indeed, with the knowledge determined in the administration and program evaluation, the police organization can find effective solutions and strategies for the realization of further development in their function as public servants. However, for the effectiveness of the program evaluation, certain measures must be implemented to achieve the desired results and information accuracy. In this aspect, most evaluations of the police organization programs are conducted by outsiders from the said institutions who mainly represent the public sector which are the primary target of the said program. There are three reasons for this arrangement namely as inclined with humanitarian concern, neutrality view, and the awareness campaign for the fundamental characteristics of the program. Indeed, the dialogue of program evaluation by outsiders counteracting the police institutions is arranged mainly for the intention of achieving effective influence and positive results from the program for the benefit of its target namely the public sector. The arrangement placing outsiders as the evaluators of the programs and strategies of the police organizations is established based on three reasons inclined towards the effectiveness of the police function concern. The first involves humanitarian concern wherein the outside evaluation will be conducted on the perspective of its target sector and the realization of its effects on the public. In the process of outside evaluation, the examiners can thoroughly consider whether the said police program, strategy, or action will be either advantageous or detrimental to their concern. With them conducting the evaluation as the party representing the public interest, they can significantly determined if there are any abusive characteristics or grounds in the program which would be contradictory to the function and responsibility of the police department. Another reason for the said evaluation arrangement is the neutrality pursuit wherein both parties namely the police force and the public sector desire a transparent and unbiased view on the examination. Having an outside party conduct the program evaluation will result to a process free from the political nature and pressure existing inside the police organization. With this arrangement, any bias qualities inside the program can be reduced or even eliminated as both contrasting parties have reviewed and commented on the nature of the said program. The third reason for the said arrangement in police program evaluation lies in the awareness campaign and interest of the police organization. In this concern, the police group must acknowledge the presence and relevance of the public sector representation in terms of information dissemination and awareness. Manifested in the outside party evaluation, a party representing the public must be allowed to investigate and acquire knowledge regarding the program of the police organization. Having been informed of the program’s nature and characteristics, the said party can aid the public in understanding the purpose and relevance of that program thus, gaining the trust, support, and participation of the public sector. Indeed, doing the arrangement of outside party evaluation can effectively aid the interest of the program of manifesting the function of the police organization and benefit the need of the public sector. In the pursuit of achieving effectiveness in the action and performance of the police organization, programs embodying the function of the organization are created as part of their action. In the concern of achieving the beneficial interest from the police performance, the arrangement establishing outside parties to evaluate and examine the performance program of the police organization is created. This approach is developed mainly based on the reasons of humanitarian concern, transparency in the organization’s activities, and the interest of the public for awareness in the presence and activities of the police organization. In general, the development of the said arrangement as part of the procedural activity of the police organization is for the effectiveness of their function and duty of protecting the welfare of the public and promoting peace in the society.

The Great Depression Of 1929-1939 - 2217 Words

Although the Great Depression of 1929-1939 was a detrimental and hard time for America due to increases in crime rates, unemployment rates, and shortages of food, the economic collapse was also a time for President Franklin Roosevelt to reassess the economic situation in America. Roosevelt put in place laws, agencies, and legislature that better shaped the structure of the country, and ultimately created a more powerful and stronger country, both economically and socially. The new legislature that President Roosevelt put into place lead to the United States experiencing close to seven decades of economic growth and made it one of the most influential countries in the world. The American economy slipped into a depression with the Stock Market Crash of 1929. At first, people thought it would be just another depression, similar to the seventeen or more the United States had already been through, and it wasn’t referred to as ‘The Great Depression’ until much later. This time it was different though, and much more of the population was effected as the depression overwhelmed the economy a considerable amount quicker than any had before. On October 24, a day now known as ‘Black Thursday,’ more than 12.9 million shares were traded. A second rush of anxiety swept over Wall Street only five days later on a day now referred to as ‘Black Tuesday.’ Another 16 million shares were traded that day, leaving investors with nothing. The United States GDP fell thirty percent that year,Show MoreRelatedThe Great Depression ( 1929-1939 )1813 Words   |  8 PagesThe Great Depression (1929-1939) is the worst economic downtur n that the modern world has ever seen before. Beginning with the Wall Street stock market crash of 1929, the situation grew worse in the United States, in part, due to the tremendous wealth disparity between the higher class and the lower class. Wages did not grow nearly as quickly as production did during this era, so many people were unable to purchase certain goods. As a result, there was an excess in supply, which prompted layoffsRead MoreThe Causes of Canadas Great Depression of 1929-1939 Essay1679 Words   |  7 Pagesâ€Å"On the morning of October 29, 1929, panicked voices shouted over one another. Here and there, men leaned against the walls, hands over their faces as if trying to shut out the scene. In the street outside, a crowd had gathered, trying to learn the news. A man staggered out the door, clutching his hat in both hands. He looked as though he might weep. â€Å"It’s gone,â€Å" he whispered, so quietly only the few closest to him heard. â€Å"Itâ€⠄¢s all gone.†# The term ‘Great Depression’ according to Kristin Brennan evokesRead MoreThe Great Depression By Milton Freidman And Paul Samuelson1267 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction: Background Information The Great Depression is defined as an era of hardship and was the â€Å"economic downturn in the history of the Western industrialized world† . The United States was predominantly affected by the Great Depression, soon after stock market crash of October 1929. This fiscal crisis sent Wall Street, the center of economics in New York into a state of prolonged recession that affected foreign economies. In the next few years in America, unemployment increased immenselyRead More Canada and The Great Depression of the 1930s1378 Words   |  6 Pages1929-1939- The Great Depression The depression years of 1929 - 1939 proved to be the worst, and some of the best years for Canada and Canadians. It was a time of extreme highs and lows socially, emotionally, and economically. It was a time that Canada came into her own being on the world wide stage. During the worst depression years in Canada, there were many people who tried tirelessly to get Canada out of the crisis she was in more quickly and efficiently. William Aberhart and his group ofRead MoreThe Stock Market Crash Of 19291437 Words   |  6 PagesBy early 1929, people across the United States were rushing to get into the stock market. The profits seemed so certain that even many companies placed money in the stock market. In addition, even more problematic, some banks placed their customers money in the stock market (without their consent). With the stock market prices rising, everything seemed fantastic. Many believe incorrectly that the stock market crash of 1929 is the same as the Great Depression when in fact; it was one of the majorRead MoreThe Great Depression : The Greatest Depression1257 Words   |  6 PagesThe Great Depression was one of the lowest points ever seen in history that began in 1929 and lasted until 1939. It can be defined as an economic slump i n North America and Europe, along with other industrialized areas of the world. The Great Depression was the longest, most severe depression ever seen, and experienced by the newly, industrialized Western world. Although there are pros and cons, as it brought in deep social and personal problems as well as a new introduction to thought and cultureRead MoreEssay on The Great Depression, Annotated Bibliography879 Words   |  4 PagesCecchetti, Stephen G. Understanding the Great Depression: Lessons for Current Policy . Monetary Economics (1997): 1-26. This article is about the circumstances that led to the collapse of the economy in 1929. It relates to my research proposal because I am evaluating historic events that led to the financial crisis of 1929. The article discusses how deflation played an important role in expanding the depression, and how the Gold Standard, a monetary system in which a country’s government allowsRead MoreThe Age Of The Depression1120 Words   |  5 PagesMany people think of the 1930s as â€Å"The Age of the Depression†. Two main events happened that cause this thought to pop into their heads. These two main events were the Great Depression and The Dust Bowl. In 1929 the stock market had crashed which led to a higher unemployment rate and a lower income, this was called the Great Depression. A couple of years before World War I The Great Plains had been plowed then a horrible drought hit the areas that were plowed. The dry dust would blow around the plainsRead MoreHoover And Roosevelt s A ctions During The Aftermath Of The Crash Of 1929792 Words   |  4 PagesCrash of 1929. How did both administrations attempt to deal with the economic stagnation, social hardship and psychological impact of the depression? What needed to be fixed and which approach proved more successful? In your essay you should address not only the underlying economic and social problems that both administrations had to deal with and the various corrective measures they adopted, but also the underlying philosophical approaches of Hoover and Roosevelt and their supporters. The Great CrashRead MoreDecade of Despair: Winnebago County During the Great Depression by Werner E. Braatz and Thomas J. Rowland1524 Words   |  6 PagesDecade of Despair: Winnebago County During the Great Depression 1929-1939. Authors are Werner E. Braatz and Thomas J. Rowland. Copyright 2009 by University Press of America. Published Lanham, Maryland 20706. ISBN-13: 978-0761846406. The stock market crash of October 1929 drastically affected the economic growth of the entire United States. In Wisconsin the attitudes of many changed and several began to devise plans on surviving the worst depression in the Nation’s history. Wisconsin, like many

Chemicals That Could Make You Fail a TSA Swab Test

If youre flying, you may get pulled aside by a TSA agent for a swab test. Also, your baggage may get swabbed. The purpose of the test is to check for chemicals that might be used as explosives. The test cant check for all the chemicals that might be used by terrorists, so it looks for two sets of compounds that can be used to make many types of bombs: nitrates and glycerin. The good news is the test is highly sensitive. The bad news is nitrates and glycerin are found in some harmless everyday products, so you could test positive.   Getting swabbed doesnt seem to be particularly random. For example, some people get swabbed nearly every time they fly. This may be because theyve tested positive before (possibly related to a penchant for making smoke bombs and other small pyrotechnics) or because they meet some other criteria. Just expect to be swabbed and be prepared. Heres a list of common chemicals that may cause you to test positive. Avoid them or else be ready to explain the test result, because it can take a while for TSA to complete its evaluation of your belongings, which can translate into a missed flight. Common Products That Test Positive Hand soaps that contain glycerin (Rinse very thoroughly after washing your hands.)Lotions that contain glycerinCosmetics or hair products, which may contain glycerinBaby wipes, which may contain glycerinCertain medications (such as nitroglycerin and other nitrates)Lawn fertilizers (Nitrates: Wash your hands and especially your shoes.)MunitionsAccelerantsFireworks and other pyrotechnics What to Do If Youre Flagged Avoid becoming hostile and aggressive. It wont speed the process. Youre likely going to get patted down by an agent of the same gender who will also empty your bag for additional testing. Theres a chance your luggage may get pulled, although this rarely happens; its also unlikely that you will miss a flight because of the test. Be aware of chemicals in your environment and able to trace your steps to help TSA identify the source of the triggering compound. Sometimes you wont have any idea why you flagged the test. But, careful attention to hygiene may help you avoid the situation. The best advice is to arrive early enough before your flight to get through security. Try to avoid the problem, plan for it, and dont overreact if it happens to you.

The Reconstruction A Documentary History of the South...

Shenton, James P. The Reconstruction: A Documentary History of the South after the War: 1865 1877. New York: Capricorn, 1963. Print. Book Review I read the book The Reconstruction: A Documentary History of the South after the War: 1865-1877 by James P. Shenton. James P. Shenton arrived at the University of Columbia at the age of 21 as a college freshman on the G.I. Bill. He finished his B.A. in three years and continued to finish his M.A. in 1950. In 1954 he finished his Ph. D all his accomplishments are in the subject of history. Professor Shenton arrived at Columbia University and never transferred anywhere else and eventually became a Professor on their campus. The context of this book is the years 1865 through 1877 which are the years†¦show more content†¦The U.S. government tried to reconstruct the South by punishing those who ran plantations using slaves, emancipating former slaves as well as other ways. The U.S. government made sure to give land to former slaves and white citizens who were not well-off, the land had been seized from plantation leaders. The United States government also focused on i mproving education and sanitation resources for those who did not have any. Last but not least the U.S. government focused greatly to made sure to ensure the rights of former slaves. To make sure that the newly freed slaves would be protected, many new amendments and laws were passed to protect their rights by both constitutional and federal laws. The Thirteenth, Fourteenth and Fifteenth amendments were added to the constitution in order to help protect the African American citizens from discrimination and racism. The Thirteenth amendment got rid of slavery, the Fourteenth gave African Americans legal citizenship and the Fifteenth granted African American men the privilege to vote. The author’s thesis in this book is that the North devoted a great amount of effort to reestablish the South and improve what it used to be. I agree that the North was determined to better the South and help the slaves which had been taken advantage of and been mistreated for many years. Professor Shenton provided a great amount of evidence and

Domestic Issues And The World Late free essay sample

Despite that fact, there are relations that exist between the current American domestic policies, socioeconomic conditions, and culture with the early 20th Century American involvement overseas. The essay will take a look at the correlations between American domestic policies, socioeconomic conditions, and culture and early 20th Century American involvement overseas. The domestic policies in late 1 9th Century and early 20th Century focused mainly on criminal activities, drugs, alcohol, and legalization of certain activities (Wood, 142).The policy focus in the late 19th Century and 20th Century are positively correlated with the current American domestic policies. Currently the domestic policies are centered towards solving almost similar problems. Therefore, the correlation exists between the two different times (Our documents, 81 In the late 19th Century and early 20th Century America began active involvement overseas. Its domestic policies in early 20th century and the current domestic policies were aimed to have an impact to the outside world. Still at the current times America is still actively involved in the overseas operations. Socio-economic conditions in the late 19th Century and early 20th Century are directly correlated with the current American socioeconomic conditions Truman Doctrine, 9). The socioeconomic conditions basically involve the issue of health and lifestyle. In early 20th Century people were battling the issue of health and lifestyle (Marshal Plan, 27). The issues of health and lifestyle changes are still problems at current times.Thus correlation exists in those two current times. Culture is one of the diverse and quick changing phenomena. The American culture has been changing with time. However, despite the change and evolution Of the culture, the rich elements Of the culture have been passed through the generations (Colby, 597). In late 19th Century and early 20th Century the American culture was more concrete and focused on ethnicity background. The whites, the blacks, the natives, and the Latino all brought their culture in their lives.The American people then tried to incorporate these cultures which by mid 20th century became synonymous with the American people. The blend of these cultures became rich and inspiring. During the time, the American became so much involved in overseas activities. In that way the American culture began to spread (power of persuasion, 7). Looking back at the time and the current times, the culture can be stated as relatively correlated. America is currently involved actively in overseas activities. The American culture is still blended just like the culture of the late 9th Century and early 20th Century.American culture still influences other cultures in the world because America has a strong involvement in overseas activities. Conclusion Domestic policies, socioeconomics conditions, and culture at the present times are correlated with the same aspect as the late 1 9th Century and early 20th Century. The only changes that have occurred ebb. When the times are the general economic situation and the culture influence from other people from there parts of the world. Examples of such people are Chinese, Arabs and many other African and Asian cultures.

Issues Regarding the Public School System in the U..S free essay sample

This paper examines the problems with the public school system and possible solutions. Examines the history and aims of the public school system and its declining quality and proposed solutions. The school vouchers and charter schools solutions are reviewed and alternative systems are looked at. The author concludes that the public school system itself needs changes rather than changing the entire system. The Public School System in the United States was one of the primary and prevailing forms of education in the country at present. The public school system was established as early as 1837 in Massachusetts, wherein Horace Mann, a Bostonian reformist, became the first secretary of the Massachusetts board for the coordination of the public school system. In 1839, the first public school was established, and in 1852, the first compulsory school-attendance law was passed in the Massachusetts legislature. By the year 1918, every state in the US was already under this school-attendance law. We will write a custom essay sample on Issues Regarding the Public School System in the U..S or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Public schooling flourished when the Land-Grant Act (or the Morill Act) was approved in 1862, which provided federal land to the states for use in establishing public schools.